“Tis pride, rank pride, and haughtiness of soul, I think the Romans call it stoicism.” Joseph Addison
“History is the sum total of things that could have been avoided.”Konrad Adenaur
“History is a set of lies agreed upon.” Napoleon Bonaparte
“History does not repeat itself; historians merely repeat each other.” Philip Guedalla
“Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.” George Santayana
“The history of the world is but the biography of great men.” Carlyle
“Fellow citizens, we cannot escape history,” Abraham Lincoln
“…history has many cunning passages.” T.S. Eliot
“The only thing new in the world is the history you don’t know.” Harry S. Truman
Colleen McCullough wrote seven novels about Roman life and history starting with “The First Man in Rome” in 110 B.C. and ending with “Anthony and Cleopatra” in 27 B.C. These seven historical novels are each epic chronicles of fascinating people in a unique place in a momentous period of human experience. McCullough has obviously spent years pouring over historical records and then bringing it all to life in vivid prose.
The books teem with characters both male and female that cannot soon be forgotten such as Gaius Marius, Sulla, Pompey the Great ( self proclaimed “Magnus”), Mark Anthony, and Caesar, each of whom tower and topple in their times, and lesser but very important men such as Cato, the Younger, Brutus, and Cicero and even a common man or two such as Lucius Decumium. assassin, crossroads ruler, and friend and aide to Caesar and his mother,Aurelia
The women are so numerous that one of the books in the series is entitled “Caesar’s Women” and Aurelia, Julia, Julilla, Servilia, several Marcia’s, Tertulia, and Fulvia are but a few of the many women who grace these pages.
Not only are the 93 years of the seven novels steeped in the history of the period but many prior periods, characters, and events are discussed as well when germane to issues of the periods covered.
As well as Rome and Italy the books describe wars and alliances with kings, and other rulers in many countries in Arabia, Africa,and Asia,as well as specific references to Germany, Gaul, Spain, England, Greece, Macedonia, Syria, and, of course, Egypt, as well as numerous others.
The intricate relationships of Romans with their Gods, rites, religious duties and roles such as auger, Pontifex Maximus, Flamen Dialis, and relationship of the women with Bona Dea are described as well.
There is enough intrigue, skulduggery, back-stabbing, treachery, double-dealing, and other sinister machinations to satisfy the most devious minds in the course of these novels.
There are plenty of wars, both within and without Italy, against foreigners, and against each other in several civil wars fueled by greed, malice and distrust. These wars involve great generals like Gaius Marius, Sulla, and Caesar and numerous incompetents, usually wealthy aristocrats with bloated confidence as to their innate military prowess as well as being indifferent to the thousand of lives they put in jeopardy.
There are fascinating inside looks at the opulent lives of the fabulously rich both within and without Roman, as well as frequent peeks at the lives of the less fortunate in this turbulent world.
And there are plenty of glimpses at the incredible graft, corruption, nepotism, and naked acts of outrageous thievery that enabled so many to live so well.
Some of this wealth was gained by arranged marriages in exchanges of rank, beauty and power for incredible wealth. The ease of marriage and divorce in Roman society is soon evident in the narrative. The many sexual affairs, as well as their diversity, are plentiful enough to satisfy the most prurient appetites.
“The First Man in Rome” sets the theme for the whole series as Gaius Marius, “a new Man” without the proper birth and ancestry to qualify for the elite strata of Roman society has to prove so skilled at warfare, political maneuvering and craft that he bulls his way to the top of Roman society. He is aided by Gaius Julius Caesar, father of the Caesar we know from history, who marries his oldest daughter to Gaius Marius, thus assuring that by marriage into the august Julian family Marius will have to be accepted by Roman society. In exchange, Marius, who is fabulously rich from warfare and family inheritance, endows the Julius family with enough money to ensure the future of the sons and the financial stability of the family.
While on one of his war campaigns Marius visits a seer who delights him with favorable prophecies of his prominent future but also frightens him with the prediction that the extremely bright younger son of Gauis Julius Caesar will eventually eclipse him. Gaius Marius craftily appoints the young Julius Caesar to the post of Flamen Dialis which will make it impossible for Caesar to have a military or political career. This sets the stage for the battles to come.
In the second book. “The Grass Crown.” Lucius Cornelius Sulla emerges from the shadow of Gauis Marius to vie for the title of “The First Man in Rome” after he wins a “grass crown” awarded by the soldiers after a battle. A grass Crown is given for singular acts of bravery that save the day and the lives of many men when events have nearly led to defeat and disaster.
Sulla is undoubtedly the most complex character in the whole seven books. When he is first introduced we learn that although he was born with the bloodlines of the elite he was so poor as a child he had to survive as a male prostitute until his beauty and charm brings him into a more secure life as a gigolo with several mistresses and lovers, including a young male actor, Metrobius, who becomes the one true love of Sulla’s life.
Sulla is completely immoral and amoral, but shrewd enough to know he has to mask his proclivities, if he is to rise in society. He skillfully embarks on a series of murders, disguised as accidents, of his mistresses, and others, who have either named him as their heir, or stood in his way, and thus secures himself enough money to buy political office and a career in the army. Through serving as a aide to Gaius Marius and through acts of bravery, cunning, daring, and self advancement, as well as marriage to the younger daughter of Gauis Julius Caesar, the spoiled, headstrong Juliila, he soon becomes a rival even to the great Gaius Marius, First Man in Rome.
Sulla bans his male paramour, and other dissolute companions, from his society as he embarks on a campaign to rule his world. One of the characteristics of his complex character is that he can easily be beguiled by theatrics and underneath everything we sometimes see glimpses of Sulla relishing with internal laughter the absurdity of the world in which he is immersed as well as the effects of his machinations.
Along the way as he gains prestige and power he is amused and beguiled by Aurelia, the young Caesar’s mother, who has bought herself a huge complex in the heart of the unfashionable part of Rome, Subura, where she is a landlady overseeing apartments, offices, and other businesses and where, unbeknownst to her husband, who is often away, she is so tough and thorough, she even confronts Lucius Ducumium, custodian of the crossroads and leader of “protection gangs”, who is so captivated by her lack of fear and display of independence, that he becomes not only her ally, but protector and a god-father to her son, the young Julius Caesar.
The second book ends with the end of an era in the death of Gaius Marius, whose behavior has become brutal in his last years as a series of strokes and fears about his legacy have driven him to half-mad, half-paranoid behavior.
The third book is “Fortune’s Favorites” in which Sulla takes over Rome as the true despot that he is. He proscribes and kills many of his enemies and other prominent Romans, and passes numerous laws to correct the mistakes of prior indifferent leaderships. Sulla eventually fulfills all his goals, resigns as dictator, and in a hilarious sequence leaves Rome in a drunken torpor, with his long time male lover, Metrobius, and other members of his Bacchanalian coterie to live out his life in drunken excess.
This is also the period of Spartacus , whose revolt brings new Roman generals to the fore including Marcus Crassus, a fabulously greedy and wealthy man. McCullough tells this story in a version closer to history and not Hollywood.
We also have the emergence of Caesar, freed from the flamen dialis trap set by Gauis Marius, by whim of Sulla, who displays his remarkable memory and military prowess in an audacious series of encounters with pirates. Earlier in Caesar’s first military campaign, he not only gains one of his worst enemies in Bibulus, but so angers his general, Lucullus, that he is posted to fight in the most dangerous spot in the vanguard at the outset of a battle, but conducts himself with such poise, audacity and brilliance that he wins a “grass grown” from his troops, which, under Sulla’s new laws, automatically puts him in the Senate at the tender age of 20, and requires the wearing of the grass crown to universal applause at every public gathering.
In “Caesar’s Women” we begin to see the further emergence of the young prodigy, Julius Caesar. An unfortunate rumor, spread by the many enemies of the young man, already jealous of his singular beauty, skills, and accomplishments, is that he was taken as a lover in return for money by one of the dissolute eastern kings in an area of the world where bisexuality is not only common, but socially acceptable. The king actually did make overtures, but was not offended by Caesar’s rejection, and, in fact, he and his wife become so fond of Caesar that they treat him as a treasured godson and actually give him gifts and money.
Caesar’s treasured dignity (dignitas, to him) is wounded by these rumors and he asks his mother, Aurelia, for advice. She suggests that he embark on a campaign of wooing the wives of famous men, especially his critics and enemies, and cuckolding them one by one, in revenge, and to dispel any further thoughts that he prefers men. Thus, the campaign, and the title of the book.
In addition to all the philandering, political acts, oratorical displays, intrigue, and other maneuvering in this complex society we witness the brash emergence of Pompey the Great, another claimant for first man in Rome, and three memorable foes of Caesar—Cato, my personal poster-child for stubbornest brat of all time; Cicero, who McCullough portrays as a shameless braggart, liar, and political incompetent; and Marcus Anthony, a dissolute Arnold Schwarzenegger type with brains, but no scruples or common sense. Marcus Anthony is first seen not only as an unruly rowdy brat and bully, but as a star member of the notorious “Clodious Club” that will do anything for notoriety, the more infamous the better, including in Mark Anthony’s case, the public kissing of another man on the lips.
Pompey the Great (who has appended Magnus to his name) marries Julius Caesar’s daughter Julia, which gives Caesar has an alliance with still another fabulously wealthy and potentially powerful man.
Next we come to “Caesar” in which McCullough treats us to many of the great military campaigns of Caesar, in which he displays his unmatched genius for strategy and organization. He further shows his unparalleled ability to get his men to perform incredible feats of hard labor to compete engineering designs and machines created by Caesar for sieges, or as needed in other encounters, to defeat much larger armies of enemies.
In this book all of his enemies unite in scheme after scheme to belittle him only to be thwarted at every turn until finally Caesar is forced to cross the Rubicon and drives them into exile. He proves in encounter after encounter that he is not only a military genius who never lost a battle, but also so skillful in politics and intrigue that he is not beaten there either. In addition he is also skilled at oratory, poetry, political maneuvering, and in so many other areas I won’t even attempt to itemize them here.
Her sixth book , The October Horse, (I suggest you look up the historical reference to understand the significance of this title), outlines Caesar’s military defeat of his enemies. While pursuing his enemies he meets with, and is courted by, Cleopatra, who judges Caesar to be another King and therefore a fit match for her, and with whom he sires a son.
Caesar falls ill with a strange disease but is diagnosed with a cure by Cleopatra’s doctor. He continues to pursue his enemies and ultimately defeats them at last.
He then returns to Rome where he is murdered by 22 assassins on the infamous Ides of March
His revenge is carried out by Marcus Anthony, who, while still a dissolute wastrel, has become an excellent military leader, along with Caesar’s great-nephew, Octavian, who is Caesar’s heir. Although ill health and a weak frame make Octavian an unlikely soldier his courage, will, and a sagacity well beyond his years make him outstanding in every form of leadership and diplomacy needed for his survival.
The last book, Antony and Cleopatra, completes the seven stories. Cleopatra believes that Marc Antony, as kinsman to Caesar, is also a God and can give her the daughter she needs to mate with her son by Caesar to continue her line of succession under Egyptian laws. So she lures him to her bed and they begin their tragic relationship.
Marc Antony is furious that Octavian was named as Caesar’s heir instead if himself and resolves to squash this weak “mushroom”. Octavian shrewdly buys time by arranging a triumvirate with Lepidus and Antony.
Antony chooses to rule the east where he can war against the rich kings and gain glory and wealth while leaving Octavian to wrestle with the many problems in Rome and Italy which lacks money and is beset by the pirate, Sextus Pompieus, son of Pompey the Great, who with his vast fleet of ships controls the grain harvests as well as movement of grain and becomes fabulously wealthy by selling the grain at exorbitant prices. Sextus is abetted by Antony as his piracy aids Antony in his campaign of making Octavian’s life difficult.
Octavian in consort with his close friend , ally, and superior general, Agrippa, reconquers Gaul and parts of Germany, builds and raises a fleets of ships, and ultimately battles the pirate, Sextus, on sea and land, and defeats his forces. Sextus escapes but is later defeated, captured, and killed. Octavian, after defeating Sextus in Sicily, has to deal with the land forces of Lepidus, at Agrigento, where Lepidus attempts to steal the horde of money abandoned by Sextus for himself. Octavian thwarts him by using his resemblance to his great-uncle, Caesar, to steal the troops loyalties and allegiance back to him. Octavian secures the vast treasure, sends 40 % to Antony as previously agreed, but gives his portion to the Roman treasury. The money sent to Antony becomes useful in Octavian’s continuing propaganda campaign to undermine the popularity of Antony.
Thereafter Octavian begins a long campaign to convince Rome and Italy that Antony is besotted by Cleopatra and becoming less and less a loyal Roman. He is aided in this propaganda campaign by a disastrous war campaign by Antony against the Eastern kings in which he makes several errors and his badly fooled by treachery within his own allies. Antony loses the bulk of his army, many of whom are lost in an arduous retreat, and goes on a prolonged drunken binge until rescued by Cleopatra. Cleopatra funds one more war campaign against the Eastern Kings and sends her own Roman diplomat to negotiate the surrender of an important King, who comes with his family and a considerable treasure.
Antony wants to bring the royal prisoners, art and treasure to Rome for a triumph but is convinced by Cleopatra and her minions that during his drunken stupor he has pledged to hold the triumph in Egypt and give the treasure to Cleopatra in payment for her financing his rescue and new campaign.
This is the beginning of the end for Antony and Cleopatra as they are soundly defeated by Antony’s forces in a series of battles and return to Alexandria for their ultimate suicides and the death as well for all of their dreams.
In the end it is the sickly heir to Caesar, Octavian, who becomes not only the true First Man in Rome but also assumes the unique name and status of Caesar Augustus, the one and only.
As you can tell I have glossed over nearly 7000 pages of narration with a only a few details. These seven books are definitely worth the attention of anyone who loves a dazzling view of such a rich part of our history.
The dozens of main characters are bold and picturesque and the hosts of supplemental characters and situations could easily rival the fabled stories of the 1001 nights for their mesmerizing capacity to enthrall.
The significance of this period is that Rome at that time carried over from Greece the concept that they needed no royalty, that they were a community of equals-so that even their leaders were prima inter pares-first among equals. In theory it was a society of equals governed by laws, traditions and elections.
In practice, however, their was a elaborate order of elitism. Only Romans counted and the old established families counted above others. Marriages were carefully arranged among the established families but outsiders with wealth or demonstrable skills could “buy in” by marrying into prestige families through daughters and widows as did Gaius Marius , who abetted his martial skills and wealth by marrying a “Julian” daughter to be ranked as socially acceptable despite his Picentine origins.
After the elite families, often called the “boni”, came ranks of knights who voted on key Senate questions and the Plebes , who had the power of the veto.
Caesar was reviled by so many because he not only proved himself to be superior at everything he did but he rubbed their noses in it by flaunting his skills to his rivals, while maintaining the common touch and an unmatchable rapport with the common people, including the disenfranchised Italians and Gauls who were working with, and fighting for, the Romans, but not accepted as citizens.
Men like Cato, whose own ancestors were of low birth except for his grandfather, Cato the Censor, who earned prominence with his hard work, became highly valuable to the anti-Caesar forces because of his stentorian voice, his utter lack of fear, and his conviction that his version of tradition was the only proper course regardless of how his obstinacy imperiled his country. (Sounds like a lot of current politicos, doesn’t it?)
The irony was that Caesar, through his role of Pontifus Maximus, had access to old scrolls and knew more about old, traditions, laws, and religions than Cato ever would, plus he had the interests of the whole country always in mind.
After reading about Roman history in this tumultuous period I felt I knew more about how our government really works.
A sidelight to these stories is that I couldn’t help thinking that the graft, corruption and greed of the Roman politicians are being echoed in our modern congress with the many special interests and lobbyists with their fat wallets open to buy influence. There is truly nothing new under the sun!
Thank you , Colleen McCullough, your books are so rich with delectable narratives, characters, and events that I will read them again and again as the years roll on. These are the creme de la creme of Romans a Clef!
